肠球菌

求闻百科,共笔求闻

肠球菌属
感染肺部组织的肠球菌
生物分类法 编辑
域: 细菌域 Bacteria
界: 细菌界 Bacteria
门: 厚壁菌门 Firmicutes
纲: 芽孢杆菌纲 Bacilli
目: 乳杆菌目 Lactobacillales
科: 肠球菌科 Enterococcaceae
属: 肠球菌属 Enterococcus
(Andrewes and Horder 1906) Schleifer and Kilpper-Bälz 1984
模式种
粪肠球菌
Enterococcus faecalis
(Andrewes and Horder 1906) Schleifer and Kilpper-Bälz 1984

见正文

肠球菌属(学名:Enterococcus),革兰氏阳性球菌。经常以成对(双球菌)或短链方式存在,故从形态上与链球菌属很难区分[1]。在人类肠道里有两种常见的偏利共生肠球菌:粪肠球菌Enterococcus faecalis)约占90-95%和屎肠球菌Enterococcus faecium)约占5-10%。其他人体中较少见的菌群还有E. casseliflavusE. gallinarumE. raffinosus[1]肠球菌因为能生成抵抗药物的物质,使它们不容易被抗生素杀死,且容易散播抗药性并可在恶劣环境中生存,故近年来已成为临床感染的重要致病菌之一[2][3][4][5][6][7]。尤其是E. faecium经常对氨苄青霉素(ampicillin)及万古霉素(vancomycin)具有抗药性,是所有肠球菌感染症中最难治疗的。

分类

肠球菌是一种移生在肠道的革兰氏阳性菌,故名肠球菌。在19世纪末发现,早期归为链球菌属。1930年代中期,依兰斯菲尔德血清分型(Lancefield classification),肠球菌被归类为D群链球菌(Group D Streptococcus),但是与非肠球菌的D群链球菌,如Streptococcus bovis, 在生化特性上有相当大的差异。直到1984年,基因体DNA分析指出肠球菌和链球菌的不同,而将肠球菌独立成为一属。[8]

肠球菌属目前含40个种,临床常见的包括:[9]

  • Enterococcus alcedinis Frolková et al. 2013
  • 海水肠球菌 Enterococcus aquimarinus Švec et al. 2005
  • 驴肠球菌 Enterococcus asini de Vaux et al. 1998
  • 鸟肠球菌 Enterococcus avium (ex Nowlan and Deibel 1967) Collins et al. 1984
  • Enterococcus bulliens Kadri et al. 2016
  • Enterococcus caccae Carvalho et al. 2006
  • Enterococcus camelliae Sukontasing et al. 2007
  • Enterococcus canintestini Naser et al. 2005
  • 犬肠球菌 Enterococcus canis De Graef et al. 2003
  • 铅黄肠球菌 Enterococcus casseliflavus (ex Vaughan et al. 1979) Collins et al. 1984
  • 盲肠肠球菌Enterococcus cecorum (Devriese et al. 1983) Williams et al. 1989
  • 鸽肠球菌 Enterococcus columbae Devriese et al. 1993
  • Enterococcus crotali McLaughlin et al. 2017
  • 戴维斯肠球菌 Enterococcus devriesei Švec et al. 2005
  • Enterococcus diestrammenae Kim et al. 2013
  • 殊异肠球菌 Enterococcus dispar Collins et al. 1991
  • Enterococcus dongliensis Li and Gu 2019
  • 耐久肠球菌 Enterococcus durans (ex Sherman and Wing 1937) Collins et al. 1984
  • Enterococcus eurekensis Cotta et al. 2013
  • 粪肠球菌 Enterococcus faecalis (Andrewes and Horder 1906) Schleifer and Kilpper-Bälz 1984
  • 屎肠球菌 Enterococcus faecium (Orla-Jensen 1919) Schleifer and Kilpper-Bälz 1984
  • 黄色肠球菌 Enterococcus flavescens Pompei et al. 1992,异名
  • Enterococcus florum Techo et al. 2019
  • 鹑鸡肠球菌 Enterococcus gallinarum (Bridge and Sneath 1982) Collins et al. 1984
  • 浅黄肠球菌 Enterococcus gilvus Tyrrell et al. 2002
  • 血过氧化物肠球菌 Enterococcus haemoperoxidus Švec et al. 2001
  • 赫尔曼肠球菌 Enterococcus hermanniensis Koort et al. 2004
  • 小肠肠球菌 Enterococcus hirae Farrow and Collins 1985,海氏肠球菌
  • Enterococcus hulanensis Li and Gu 2019
  • 意大利肠球菌 Enterococcus italicus Fortina et al. 2004
  • Enterococcus lactis Morandi et al. 2012
  • Enterococcus lemanii Cotta et al. 2013
  • 病臭肠球菌 Enterococcus malodoratus (ex Pette 1955) Collins et al. 1984
  • 莫拉维亚肠球菌 Enterococcus moraviensis Švec et al. 2001
  • 蒙特肠球菌 Enterococcus mundtii Collins et al. 1986
  • Enterococcus nangangensis Li and Gu 2019
  • Enterococcus olivae Lucena-Padrós et al. 2014
  • 亮黄肠球菌 Enterococcus pallens Tyrrell et al. 2002
  • 木戴胜鸟肠球菌 Enterococcus phoeniculicola Law-Brown and Meyers 2003
  • Enterococcus pingfangensis Li and Gu 2019
  • Enterococcus plantarum Švec et al. 2012
  • 猪肠球菌 Enterococcus porcinus Teixeira et al. 2001,异名
  • 假鸟肠球菌 Enterococcus pseudoavium Collins et al. 1989
  • Enterococcus quebecensis Sistek et al. 2012
  • 棉子糖肠球菌 Enterococcus raffinosus Collins et al. 1989
  • 鼠肠球菌 Enterococcus ratti Teixeira et al. 2001
  • Enterococcus rivorum Niemi et al. 2012
  • Enterococcus rotai Sedláček et al. 2013
  • 解糖肠球菌 Enterococcus saccharolyticus (Farrow et al. 1985) Rodrigues and Collins 1991
  • 少糖肠球菌 Enterococcus saccharominimus Vancanneyt et al. 2004,异名
  • Enterococcus saigonensis Harada et al. 2016
  • Enterococcus seriolicida Kusuda et al. 1991,异名
  • Enterococcus silesiacus Švec et al. 2006
  • Enterococcus solitarius Collins et al. 1989,异名
  • Enterococcus songbeiensis Li and Gu 2019
  • 硫磺肠球菌 Enterococcus sulfureus Martinez-Murcia and Collins 1991
  • Enterococcus termitis Švec et al. 2006
  • Enterococcus thailandicus Tanasupawat et al. 2008
  • Enterococcus ureasiticus Sistek et al. 2012
  • Enterococcus ureilyticus Sedláček et al. 2013
  • Enterococcus viikkiensis Rahkila et al. 2011
  • 肠绒毛肠球菌 Enterococcus villorum Vancanneyt et al. 2001
  • Enterococcus wangshanyuanii Jin et al. 2017
  • Enterococcus xiangfangensis Li et al. 2014
  • Enterococcus xinjiangensis Ren et al. 2020

生理学

肠球菌在显微镜下典型的排列为成对或短链状,很难与肺炎链球菌区别。肠球菌是兼性厌氧菌,可在有氧和无氧的环境中生长[10]。 虽然肠球菌不能形成孢子,但他们对于生长环境却有很高的耐受性,例如可在下列环境中生长:温度10-45℃、酸碱度pH 4.5-10.0、高盐浓度6.5%NaCl或40%胆汁[11]。最适宜生长温度为35℃,24小时培养可以形成白色菌落。

病理学

肠球菌在临床上引起的重要感染包括泌尿道感染菌血症、心内膜炎、憩室炎和脑膜炎[11][12]。敏感性菌株的感染可用氨苄青霉素(ampicillin)、青霉素(penicillin)和万古霉素(vancomycin)治疗[13]。 泌尿道感染则可用呋喃妥因(nitrofurantoin)进行特异性治疗,即使在万古霉素抗药性的情况下[14]

从医学观点来看,肠球菌的一个重要特性是具有高度的先天抗药性。一些肠球菌对β-内酰胺类抗生素(β-lactam,如青霉素、头孢菌素(cephalosporin)、碳青霉烯(carbapenem)及许多氨基糖苷类抗生素(aminoglycoside)具有抗药性[12]。尤其是过去20多年来,抗万古霉素肠球菌(Vancomycin-Resistant Enterococcus,VRE)在院内感染患者逐渐被检出,尤其是在美国[11]抗万古霉素肠球菌可用奎奴普丁/达福普丁(quinupristin/dalfopristin)来治疗,约有70%的患者会达到治疗效果[15],若与去氧羟四环素(doxycycline)合并治疗,可降低抗药性发生的机会。老虎霉素类抗生素(tigecycline)也已证明能用来治疗肠球菌感染[16]

2008年的一研究分析了欧洲各国(北欧、英国、爱尔兰、法国、中欧、南欧、东欧、荷兰)抗万古霉素肠球菌的发生与流行,并对临床上预防抗万古霉素肠球菌的方式提出建议。此篇文献认为,E. faecium的氨苄青霉素(ampicillin)抗药性可做为抗万古霉素肠球菌风险一个很好的筛检方法;对于分析E. faecium的基因差异(如esp基因、pruK基因)则属次要的方式,因为这些基因学的特征并非在所有抗氨苄青霉素(ampicillin)的E. faecium皆有一致的表现。也就是说,若没有检测出这些基因变异,并不能证明E. faecium菌株不会有扩散或导致疾病的风险[17]世界卫生组织(WHO)在2017年初将抗万古霉素肠球菌列为“高度威胁”的致病菌[18]

肠球菌性脑膜炎是神经外科上罕见的并发症。它一般需要透过静脉或鞘内万古霉素来进行治疗,但是治疗效果仍有争议[19]。新的流行病学证据显示,肠球菌亦是慢性细菌性摄护腺炎的主要感染因子,肠球菌会在摄护腺中形成生物膜,使其难以治疗。

除了抗药性,肠球菌也会生成许多毒性因子,毒性因子是作用于人体且会引发许多病灶,甚至造成严重疾病的物质;这些因子皆增加了肠球菌对人体的致病力[20][21][22]

美国国家院内感染监视系统(NNIS)所建置的国家健康照护安全网络(NHSN)[23]统计发现,肠球菌是院内感染的第二大病原菌[24],且位居医疗照护相关血液感染比例的第三位[25],显示肠球菌抗药性所隐藏的致病风险。

Enterococcus
分类和外部资源
ICD-9-CM041.04

食品应用

作为益生菌食用

肠球菌是人类和许多动物的一种肠道共生菌,粪肠球菌和屎肠球菌是最常见的菌种,这两种肠球菌已有许多研究证明其促进人体和动物(猪、家禽等)健康的功效,因此在保健食品的应用上普遍被作为益生菌使用[26][27][28][29][30][31]。在肠道中,肠球菌会抢夺病原菌的生存空间,这时即使不小心吃入了病原菌,这些病原菌也没办法留在肠道中,大幅降低了它们的致病力。此外,肠球菌具有抵抗消化液的能力,作为益生菌食用时,因不容易被消化液分解,所以能有更多的菌量到达肠道,使其更容易发挥改善肠道健康的作用;因为这些特性,所以肠球菌是常见的益生菌选择之一[32]

早在1980年代,肠球菌就被使用来治疗细菌性腹泻[33][34][35],当时被认为是药物治疗以外的另一种选择,主要因为肠球菌在肠道内生长快速,并可抑制其它致病菌,例如大肠杆菌的生长,因此能减缓腹泻的症状。除了细菌性腹泻,肠球菌也被证实能用来预防药物型腹泻[36][37];当服用抗生素时,肠道的菌群会因此失衡,一些致病菌就会趁机繁殖,进而造成腹泻等症状,肠球菌可避免服用抗生素时的不良反应发生。所以将具有抗药性的肠球菌作为药品,连同抗生素一同使用,达到治疗效果的同时,也可以避免副作用的发生[38]

中华民国食品药物管理署于2017年10月19日公告:预告订定“粪肠球菌(Enterococcus faecalis)及屎肠球菌(Enterococcus faecium)不得作为食品原料使用”草案,预定2018年7月实施。因肠球菌菌株变异性大,若要作为食品原料使用,业者必须要提出数据证实安全无虞,经个案审议才有机会使用。届时规定若正式施行后,经查获食品使用的原料不符规定者,将可依法开罚。

食用的健康风险

1998年美国一项研究发现,肠球菌在肠道聚集生长的过程会产生相当可观的自由基,这些自由基很可能导致肠黏膜细胞不正常增生,进而引发大癌直肠癌的风险[39]

肠球菌具有很强的抗药性散播能力[40][41][42],造成原本可以被杀死的细菌变成杀不死,因此不被认为是一般公认安全(Generally Recognized as Safe,GRAS)的菌种[43][44],作为益生菌使用仍有安全上的问题,特别是在细菌感染、免疫力低下的患者和老年人身上[43][45][46]。除了抗药性的散播能力,肠球菌也可能散播毒性因子[45][46][47][48][49],增加了肠球菌在食品应用上的疑虑,故肠球菌作为益生菌原料的安全性必须审慎评估。

肠球菌因抗药因子和毒性因子的高度散播能力,使肠球菌容易获得或传递这些对健康有风险的因子,最后衍生出药物杀不死的病菌,造成了治疗上的困难,显示肠球菌对人体健康的潜在危害[41][44][47][48][49]。因此,考虑到肠球菌感染在人类流行病学上的进展,以及肠球菌对人体健康可能具有的风险, 世界卫生组织(WHO)在2002年提出报告不建议肠球菌作为益生菌提供给人类使用[50],2007年欧洲食品安全局(EFSA)也认为肠球菌并非属于合格认定安全(Qualified Presumption of Safety,QPS)的菌种[51][52],2011年美国食品药品监督管理局(FDA)的乳制品指导方针草案[53]也不建议将肠球菌作为益生菌使用。中国[54][55]、加拿大[56][57]等国也禁止或不建议肠球菌作为益生菌成分。根据许多研究结果及主要国家的安全评估,肠球菌作为益生菌对人体健康的不良影响无法完全排除,因此禁止或有条件的使用是有其必要性的。

肠球菌专家、美国哈佛大学医学院的Michael S. Gilmore博士团队在其所撰写的《Enterococci》一书中,除了提及美国FDA与欧洲食品安全局不建议使用肠球菌作为益生菌给人类食用之外,更写到肠球菌必须确定无毒性因子以及必须以活体试验(in vivo)证明不具有基因水平转移的能力(会导致抗药性的散播)才可以作为益生菌食用;然而,到2014年为止,科学界并没有发现不具基因转移能力的肠球菌菌株[40]。有研究显示一些从食物分离出来的肠球菌可能藏有毒性因子,但毒性的显现却并非由特定的毒性因子所掌控,而是由更复杂的过程所导致。[41]。因此,肠球菌作为益生菌使用仍有相当大的争议,想借由食用这类益生菌来促进健康的同时,也不应忽视肠球菌对人体健康的不良影响。

药品应用

目前肠球菌应用于医药级的药用益生菌(pharmaceutical probiotics)主要在欧洲与亚洲部分国家通过上市。市面上以屎肠球菌(E. faecium)作为药用益生菌的安全菌株,主要源自于瑞士原料药厂Cerbios-Pharma SA所研发的Enterococcus faecium SF68®(cernelle 68)菌株。德国、中国台湾与日本的药厂则多半以粪肠球菌(E. faecalis)研发安全菌株制成药用的益生菌。

屎肠球菌(E. faecium

瑞士Cerbios-Pharma SA药厂获得cGMP制程认证,专精于研发与生产医药等级的益生菌,主要销往欧盟各国、美国、日本、韩国等生技市场。在肠球菌的部分,研发Enterococcus faecium SF68®活性屎肠球菌,并通过双盲临床药物测试,用来预防与治疗肠道相关的病症[58]

法国Sanofi药厂的Bioflorin®[59]、巴基斯坦RG Pharmacutica药厂的Newflora®[60][61]与韩国东丘(DongKoo)药厂的Ventrux[62]、Bio-Balance[63]都是使用瑞士Cerbios-Pharma SA药厂的SF68®菌株。台湾有厂商输入韩国东丘药厂的卫乐舒散(卫署药输字第021237号),卫乐舒药品仿单上为SF68®菌株[64],然而卫福部食药署的许可证内容却标示菌种为粪肠球菌(S. faecalis),此出入仍有待查证当中。

粪肠球菌(E. faecalis

德国SymbioPharm GmbH药厂研发E. faecalis DSM 16440菌株[65],开发Symbioflor® 1[66]与Pro-Symbioflor®[67]等药用益生菌,除了可改善肠胃不适的症状,也可强化免疫系统,缓解呼吸道发炎,例如鼻窦炎与支气管炎的症状。

台湾制造生产含有肠球菌的药品有百赐益锭Bio-Three Tablets [68]及"大丰"固儿美颗粒Goodmin Granules "T.F."[69],主要用于整肠与治疗消化不良等肠道不适症状[70]

武田制药的新ビオフェルミンS(欣表飞鸣)[71]也含有粪肠球菌,具有调整消化及整肠的功效。

抗性肠球菌药品

武田制药的ビオフェルミンR(表飞鸣,菌株129 BIO 3B-R)[72]成分含有耐性的粪肠球菌(E. faecalis),用于改善投与抗生素、化学疗法制剂时,肠内菌丛异常所引起的症状,提高对害菌的杀菌效果,进而减少抗生素的使用量,以防止副作用产生。

抗性药品的抗药性并不会转移至人体其他菌丛。ビオフェルミンR即特别强调其抗药性并非由质粒(plasmid)表现,而是由染色体进行混合培养的结果,因此抗药性不会转移至肠道的大肠杆菌及肠球菌等正常菌丛当中。由于其不会导致治疗使用的抗生素失去活性,因此即使抗菌剂存在也会增殖,经由产生乳酸,可改善肠内菌丛的异常,发挥整肠的作用。

作为饲料添加物

目前欧洲食品安全局规定肠球菌E. faecium使用在动物饲料,须通过相关的安全评估,包括了不得检出三种毒性因子和DNA标记:IS16、Esp、hyl-like,以及氨苄青霉素(ampicillin)的最低抑菌浓度(MIC)不得超过2 mg/L,若不符合上述的检验标准,则认定为不安全,此肠球菌不可使用于饲料添加物当中[73]

水质标准评估

水质中的肠球菌标准非常严格,例如在夏威夷州和美国的大部分地区,其海滩周围的水域是每100毫升水中,五个星期的平均值不得超过35菌落形成单位(CFU)的肠球菌,否则该地区可能会发布警告,要求民众远离海滩[74]。2004年,肠球菌更取代了粪大肠菌群和大肠杆菌,成为新的美国联邦公共盐水和淡水海域水质标准[75]

中华民国的海滩水质也是参考香港及美国,主要以甲类海域之海洋环境品质标准—大肠杆菌群之菌落数在1000 CFU/100mL以下(以下简称“符合甲类”)为判定依据。符合甲类者,再以肠球菌群区分为“优良”或“普通”。当大肠杆菌群 ≦ 1000 CFU/100mL,且肠球菌群 ≦ 50 CFU/100mL,水质标准为“优良”。当大肠杆菌群 ≦1000 CFU/100mL,但肠球菌群>50 CFU/100mL,水质标准为“普通”。若大肠杆菌群>1000 CFU/100mL,则“不宜亲水活动” 。

实验室检验

肠球菌通常会在羊血琼脂(sheep's blood agar)上呈现γ-溶血反应[12]

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